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9.

Although English is not as old as Chinese, it is spoken by many people around the world every day. English speakers are always creating new words, and we are often able to know where most words come from.

Sometimes, however, no one may really know where a word comes from. Did you ever think about why hamburgers are called hamburgers, especially when they are not made with ham? About a hundred years ago, some men went to America from Europe. They came from a big city in Germany called Hamburg. They did not speak good English, but they ate good food. When some Americans saw them eating round pieces of beef, they asked the Germans what it was. The Germans did not understand the question and answered, “We come from Hamburg.” One of these Americans owned a restaurant, and had an idea. He cooked some round pieces of beef like those which the men from Hamburg ate. Then he put each between two pieces of bread and started selling them. Such bread came to be called “hamburgers”. Today “hamburgers” are said in many countries around the world.

Whether this story is true or not, it certainly is interesting. Knowing why any word has a certain meaning is interesting, too. This reason, for most English words, can be found in any large English dictionary.

10.

To us it seems so natural to put up an umbrella to keep the water when it rains. But naturally the umbrella was not invented as protection against rain. Its first use was as a shade against the sun!

Nobody knows who first invented it, but the umbrella was used in very ancient time. Probably the first to use it were the Chinese, way back in the eleventh century B.C.

We know that the umbrella was used in ancient Egypt and Babylon as sunshade. And there was a strange thing connected with its use: it became a symbol of honor and authority. In the Far East in ancient times, the umbrella was allowed to be used only by royalty or by those in high office.

In Europe, the Greeks were the first to use the umbrella as a sunshade. And the umbrella was in common use in ancient Greece. But it is believed that the first persons in Europe to use the umbrella as protection against the rain were the ancient Romans.

During the Middle Ages, the use of the umbrella practically disappeared. Then it appeared again in Italy in the late sixteenth century. And again it was considered a symbol of power and authority. By 1680, the umbrella appeared in France, and later on in England.

By the eighteenth century, the umbrella was used against rain throughout most of Europe. Umbrellas have not changed much in style during all this time, though they have become much lighter in weight. It wasn’t until the twentieth century that women’s umbrellas began to be made, in a whole variety of colors.

11.

Industrial safety does not just happen. Companies with low accident rates plan their safety programs, work hard to organize them, and continue working to keep them alive and active. When the work is well done, a climate of accident-free operations is established where time lost due to injuries is kept at a minimum.

Successful safety programs may differ greatly in the emphasis placed on certain aspects of the program. Some place great emphasis on mechanical guarding. Others stress safe work practices by observing rules or regulations. Still others depend on an emotional appeal to the worker. But, there are certain basic ideas that must be used in every program if maximum results are to be obtained.

There can be no question about the value of a safety program. From a financial standpoint alone, safety pays off. The fewer the injury claims, the better the workman’s insurance rate. This may mean the difference between operating at a profit or at a loss.

12.

Valencia is in the east part of Spain(西班牙). It has a port on the sea, two miles away on the coast. It is the capital of a province that is also named Valencia.

The city is a market centre for what is produced by the land around the city. Most of the city's money is made from farming. It is also a busy business city, with ships, railways, clothes and machine factories.

Valencia has an old part with white buildings, coloured roofs, and narrow streets. The modern part has long, wide streets and new buildings. Valencia is well known for its parks and gardens. It has many old churches and museums. The University in the centre of the city was built in the 13th century.

The city of Valencia has been known since the 2nd century. In the 8th century it was the capital of Spain. There is also an important city in Venezuela(委內(nèi)瑞拉)named Valencia.

13.

In the American family the husband and wife usually share important decision making. When the children are old enough, they take part as well. Foreigners are often surprised by the permissiveness(寬容) of American parents. The old rule that “children should be seen and not heard” is rarely followed, and children are often allowed to do what they wish without strict control of their parents. The father seldom expects his children to listen to him without question, and children are encouraged to be independent at an early age. Some people believe that American parents carry this freedom too far. Others think that a strong father image would not suit the American values of equality and independence. Because Americans emphasize the importance of independence, young people are expected to break away from their parental families by the time they have reached their late teens or early twenties. Indeed, not to do so is often regarded as a failure, a kind of weak dependence.

This pattern of independence often results in serious problems for the aging parents of a small family. The average American is expected to live beyond the age of 70. The job-retirement age is usually 65. The children have left home, married, and set up their own households. At least 20 percent of all people over 65 do not have enough retirement incomes. But the major problem of many elderly couples is not economic. They feel useless and lonely with neither an occupation nor a close family group.

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